Islamabad: The Untold Story of Pakistan’s Capital

 In the lush embrace of the Margalla Hills, where verdant slopes whisper tales of history, lies Islamabad a city born from ambition, vision, and a touch of controversy. Far from a mere administrative hub, its creation weaves a narrative of political maneuvering, cultural upheaval, and dreams of a modern Pakistan. This is the story of how Islamabad came to be, a tale as layered as the city’s own topography.

The Genesis of a Capital

The decision to shift Pakistan’s capital from Karachi to a new city was not a whim but a calculated move steeped in history. As early as July 26, 1944, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, during a visit to Rawalpindi, paused in the village of Malpur (near today’s Quaid-e-Azam University) and declared the verdant expanse stretching to the Margalla Hills as the future seat of Pakistan’s capital. This vision, recorded in Molana Ismail Zabeeh’s Islamabad Manzil-e-Murad, predated the nation’s birth, hinting at a destiny already etched in the minds of its founders.

Fast forward to 1958, when General Ayub Khan seized power in a bloodless coup. On October 27, 1960—coinciding with the second anniversary of his “Revolution Day”—the foundation stone of Islamabad was laid. For Ayub, it was a crowning achievement, a new city to symbolize a new era. Yet, the move stung Karachi’s pride, with its residents never quite forgiving the perceived slight of losing the capital’s mantle.

Why Not Karachi or Lahore?

Karachi and Lahore, Pakistan’s pulsing metropolises, were natural contenders for the capital. So why build anew? Strategic and climatic considerations played a role. Karachi’s coastal vulnerability and Lahore’s proximity to the Indian border raised security concerns. Rawalpindi, initially chosen as an interim capital in 1959, offered a temperate climate and strategic proximity to the military’s Northern Command headquarters. The British, in their Transfer of Power documents (Volume 12, May 12, 1947), had already earmarked Rawalpindi as a potential administrative center, a nod to its military significance.

The decision, however, wasn’t solely pragmatic. It was also symbolic—a fresh start for a young nation eager to carve its identity. Islamabad, envisioned as a planned city akin to Canberra or Washington, D.C., was to embody Pakistan’s aspirations, free from the colonial baggage of its older cities.

A City Rises from Villages

Islamabad’s gleaming avenues belie its humble origins. Where skyscrapers and embassies now stand, 85 villages once thrived, their 45,000 acres acquired for 160 million rupees in the late 1950s. This transformation displaced nearly 50,000 people, a human cost often overshadowed by the city’s modern allure. According to Muhammad Arif Raja’s History of Rawalpindi and Pakistan Movement, these displaced villagers were resettled with 90,000 acres in Multan, Sahiwal, Vehari, Jhang, and near the Gudu Barrage in Sindh, facilitated by 36,000 land permits.

Villages like Katarian (now under Constitution Avenue), Shakarparian (home to Lok Virsa), and Dhok Jiwan (beneath Faisal Mosque) were erased to make way for progress. The Gakhar clan, who ruled Pothohar for over seven centuries, once dominated these lands. Their legacy, like the villages, lingers only in historical records, such as the 1884 Rawalpindi Gazetteer, which notes their ownership of 62 villages in the district.

The Architect’s Vision: Doxiadis and Modernism

The man tasked with shaping Islamabad was no ordinary planner. Constantine Doxiadis, a Greek urbanist, brought a global perspective shaped by his work resettling refugees after World War I. Arriving in Karachi in 1954, Doxiadis embarked on a month-long journey across Pakistan, from the Indus River to Khyber Pass, to understand its cultural and geographic tapestry. His vision for Islamabad, inspired by mid-century modernist ideals and backed by institutions like the World Bank, was a city that reflected both Pakistan’s heritage and its forward-looking ambitions.

Dr. Chad Haines, an American anthropologist who visited Pakistan in 2013, described Islamabad as a “mirror of its era.” In his view, the city embodied Ayub’s authoritarian vision while reflecting post-colonial aspirations and Cold War influences, with Doxiadis as its “ardent warrior.” The grid-like layout, punctuated by green belts and monumental structures, was a testament to this blend of control and idealism.

The Cost of Ambition

Building a capital from scratch demanded vast resources. The Presidential Palace cost 205.5 million rupees, the National Assembly 176.7 million, and the city’s roads 96.1 million. The House Building Finance Corporation tower in Blue Area, Islamabad’s commercial heart, was erected for 80 million, while the State Bank building cost a modest 30 million. Over the first 20 years, the city’s construction consumed 2.76 billion rupees—a sum that, remarkably, equates to the cost of a single underpass today.

Faisal Mosque, a jewel in Islamabad’s crown, was a gift from Saudi Arabia’s King Faisal. During a 1966 visit, he pledged to fund its construction. Begun in 1975 with a 260-million-rupee bid from the National Construction Company, costs ballooned to 400 million by completion, accommodating 100,000 worshippers in its majestic expanse.

A Climate of Change

Islamabad’s location was chosen partly for its pleasant climate, with summer temperatures rarely exceeding 42°C in the 1960s. The Rawalpindi Gazetteer notes that every four years, the Margalla Hills donned a snowy cloak, a phenomenon that once reached Rawalpindi itself in 1883. This temperate allure, coupled with a health-conscious environment, made it ideal for a capital. Yet, unchecked urbanization since 2000, with housing societies swallowing forests, has pushed temperatures to 46°C, dimming the city’s once-pristine charm.

Islamabad’s Weather: A 2025 Guide

Islamabad’s climate, shaped by its proximity to the Margalla Hills, features five distinct seasons: winter, spring, summer, monsoon, and autumn. Below is a month-by-month guide to its weather, including high and low temperatures, based on historical data and recent trends.

• January: The coldest month, with average highs of 16°C (61°F) and lows of 6°C (43°F). Temperatures can dip to -4.9°C (23.2°F). Expect occasional rain from Western Disturbances.
• February: Milder, with highs around 19°C (66°F) and lows of 8°C (46°F). Sparse snowfall may dust the Margalla Hills, as seen in 2016.
• March: Spring begins, with pleasant highs of 24°C (75°F) and lows of 12°C (54°F). Rainfall peaks, with up to 331 mm recorded in 2015.
• April: Warmer, with highs of 30°C (86°F) and lows of 17°C (63°F). Dry weather dominates, ideal for outdoor exploration.
• May: Hot, with highs reaching 35°C (95°F) and lows of 21°C (70°F). Dust storms, or andhi, are common.
• June: The hottest month, with average highs of 38.1°C (100.6°F) and lows of 24°C (75°F). Peak temperatures can hit 46.5°C (115.7°F). Pre-monsoon showers may start.
• July: Monsoon season peaks, the wettest month with 100 mm average rainfall. Highs drop to 35°C (95°F), lows to 24°C (75°F). Cloudbursts are possible, as in 2001’s 620 mm deluge.
• August: Monsoon continues, with highs of 33°C (91°F) and lows of 24°C (75°F). Humidity is high, averaging 70%.
• September: Monsoon wanes, with highs of 31°C (88°F) and lows of 19°C (66°F). Rainfall averages 98 mm, with 9 hours of daily sunshine.
• October: Autumn brings cooler highs of 30°C (86°F) and lows of 15°C (59°F). Dry and pleasant, perfect for hiking.
• November: Crisp, with highs of 25°C (77°F) and lows of 10°C (50°F). Minimal rainfall makes it ideal for sightseeing.
• December: Winter sets in, with highs of 20°C (68°F) and lows of 7°C (45°F). Rainfall from Western Disturbances averages 177.9 mm.

Annual Trends: Islamabad’s average annual rainfall is 1,457 mm, with July being the wettest. Temperatures range from -4.9°C to 46.5°C, though recent climate change has intensified summer heat.

July 2025 Snapshot: Recent forecasts for late July 2025 indicate very hot conditions, with highs up to 35°C (95°F) and lows around 27°C (81°F). Light showers may occur, transitioning to sunny intervals.

Islamabad in the Global Spotlight: International Rankings

Islamabad’s appeal extends beyond its scenic beauty, earning it recognition on the global stage. According to Numbeo’s 2025 World Safety Index, the city ranks 93rd among 380 cities worldwide, with a safety score of 67.9, outpacing major capitals like London (270th, 45.8), Paris (303rd, 41.9), Berlin (187th, 55.3), and Moscow (118th, 64.6). This ranking underscores Islamabad’s reputation as a secure destination, particularly compared to other regional cities like Lahore (130th, 63.1).

In the QS Best Student Cities Ranking, Islamabad secured 111th place in 2019, excelling in affordability with an average tuition cost of US$1,300 for international students and low living expenses. The city hosts four globally ranked universities, with the Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS) leading at 375th in the QS World University Rankings. Other notable institutions include Quaid-i-Azam University (378th in QS World University Rankings 2022) and the International Islamic University, Islamabad (IIUI), ranked 1001-1200 in the 2025 QS World University Rankings and 51-100 globally in Theology, Divinity & Religious Studies.

The World Bank’s 2010 Doing Business Report named Islamabad the best place in Pakistan to start a business, citing its business-friendly environment and tax compliance, contributing 20% of Pakistan’s tax revenue in 2012. Posts on X also highlight Islamabad’s cleanliness, ranking it among the top 50 cleanest cities globally, enhancing its allure for real estate investment in South Asia.

Naming the Dream

The name “Islamabad” wasn’t inevitable. Proposals ranged from “Ayubabad” to “Jinnahpur” and “Dar-ul-Salam.” In 1959, a commission led by General Yahya Khan deemed Karachi unsuitable and recommended a site near Rawalpindi’s Pothohar Plateau. A call for names in the weekly Qandil elicited suggestions from across Pakistan. Among them, “Islamabad,” proposed by Qazi Abdul Rahman, a schoolteacher from Arifwala, captured the nation’s Islamic and aspirational ethos, securing its place as the capital’s name.

Islamabad Today: Beauty and Challenges

Today, Islamabad’s beauty, framed by the Margalla Hills and meticulous planning, remains undeniable. Yet, unplanned sprawl threatens its original vision. A proposed twin city across the hills, envisioned by General Musharraf, was halted by the Supreme Court in 2013 over environmental and security concerns, leaving Islamabad’s future expansion in limbo.

A Day in Islamabad: A Traveler’s Guide

For those eager to explore, Islamabad offers a tapestry of experiences in a single day:

Shah Allah Ditta Caves

Nestled at the foot of the Margalla Hills in Sector D-12, these ancient caves, also known as Buddha Caves, offer a glimpse into history. A natural spring and modest garden enhance their rustic charm, though the road demands a bit of courage to navigate. Visit in September for cooler temperatures around 31°C (88°F).

Margalla Hills National Park

A 25-minute drive from the caves, the park’s six trails beckon hikers. Trail Three challenges seasoned trekkers, while Trail Five offers a gentler, equally scenic stroll. Bring water, especially in summer when highs hit 35°C (95°F). September or October, with lows of 19°C (66°F), is ideal for hiking.

Pakistan Museum of Natural History

For 30 rupees, this museum unveils a mesmerizing collection of fossils, from elephant skeletons to human skulls tracing evolutionary milestones. The displays, paired with vivid murals, tell a visual story of humanity’s journey. Visit in November for crisp 25°C (77°F) days.

Shahdara

Just beyond Quaid-e-Azam University, Shahdara’s valley cradles cool springs and serene vistas. Dining tables set in flowing streams elevate the experience, blending nature with indulgence. October’s 30°C (86°F) highs make it a perfect finale.

A City of Contrasts

Islamabad is more than a capital; it’s a narrative of Pakistan’s past and its dreams for the future. From displaced villages to grand mosques, from Quaid-e-Azam’s vision to Doxiadis’s blueprints, the city embodies ambition tempered by sacrifice. As it shines on global rankings for safety, affordability, and academic excellence, its story continues to unfold, a testament to a nation ever in pursuit of its ideals.

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Sources

• Zabeeh, Molana Ismail. Islamabad Manzil-e-Murad. Referenced by Professor Karam Haidery.
• Raja, Muhammad Arif. History of Rawalpindi and Pakistan Movement.
• Ahmad, Dr. Ishtiaq. Commentary on Transfer of Power documents, Volume 12.
• Haines, Chad. Anthropological analysis from 2013 Pakistan visit.
• Numbeo World Safety Index 2025. https://www.numbeo.com/crime/rankings.jsp
• Climate of Islamabad. Wikipedia.
• Islamabad Weather Averages. Holiday-Weather.com.
• Islamabad September Weather Guide. Weather2Travel.com.
• Islamabad 7-Day Weather Forecast. Met Office.
• Islamabad Weather Forecast. AccuWeather.
• Weather in Islamabad 2021-2025. Metar-Taf.com.
• QS Best Student Cities Ranking 2019. https://www.topuniversities.com
• QS World University Rankings 2022, 2025. https://www.topuniversities.com
• World Bank Doing Business Report 2010. https://www.worldbank.org
• Posts on X, July 24, 2025.

 

How Empires Ruled Conquered Nations

When a state expands its dominion through military conquest, it transforms from a nation-state into a vast empire—home to multiple ethnicities, languages, and cultures. Governing such an empire requires skilled bureaucrats capable of managing diverse populations while maintaining imperial authority.

Yet, the true challenge for any imperial power begins after conquest: how to control the subjugated people.

The Dilemma of Imperial Rule

The conquered elite often resist foreign domination, fearing the loss of their privileges and property. For the common people, however, life under a new ruler may bring little change—whether ruled by native kings or foreign overlords, their struggles remain the same.

The imperial power then faces a critical question: how to maintain control? Should it:

1.    Co-opt the local elite, integrating them into the administration to secure loyalty?

2.    Use brute military force, instilling fear to suppress dissent?

The execution of these policies falls upon the empire’s bureaucrats, whose expertise determines whether the empire thrives or crumbles.

To understand these dynamics, let’s examine historical case studies.

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1. The Song Dynasty: Confucian Bureaucracy & Mongol Conquest

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) marked a golden age in Chinese governance. Southern China flourished under its rule, pioneering paper currency and expanding trade across Southeast Asia. The Confucian-educated bureaucracy ensured stability by fostering good relations with local communities.

Yet, when the Mongols invaded, the Song Dynasty collapsed. Kublai Khan, the new Mongol ruler, brought Persian administrators to govern China. When he asked a brilliant Song minister to serve under him, the minister refused, declaring: "A man cannot serve two masters." Enraged, Kublai Khan executed him.

The Mongols failed to win Chinese loyalty, and by 1368, the Ming Dynasty expelled them—proving that even the mightiest conquerors cannot rule without effective governance.

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2. The Arab Empire: Byzantine Bureaucrats & Persian Influence

When the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Syria, they faced a problem: they had no administrative experience. So, they retained Byzantine bureaucrats and even kept Greek as an official language.

Later, the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE) relied on Persian administrators, particularly the influential Barmakid family. These officials introduced Sassanian traditions, promoted tolerance toward non-Muslim minorities, and fostered a scientific renaissance in Baghdad.

Yet, their dominance also marginalized Arab influence—a reminder that empires often depend on the very people they conquer.

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3. The Ottomans: The Millet System & Religious Autonomy

After conquering Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans faced a multi-religious empire of Christians, Jews, and Armenians. Their solution? The Millet System—granting each religious community autonomy over its laws, education, and leadership.

This policy ensured stability for centuries. But by the 19th century, as the empire declined, Ottoman bureaucrats introduced the Tanzimat Reforms, promising equal citizenship—a last-ditch effort to save their crumbling state.

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4. The British Raj: Divide, Rule, and Exploit

After the Battle of Plassey (1757), the British East India Company installed puppet rulers like Mir Jafar, who paid vast bribes for power. Company officials amassed fortunes, returning to England as the scorned "Nabobs"—new-money aristocrats.

To curb corruption, Britain established the Indian Civil Service (ICS)—an elite bureaucracy of highly educated Britons. These officers lived in isolation, viewing Indians as racially inferior. Lower-ranking Indian clerks handled day-to-day governance, but bribery was rampant, especially in the police.

Despite rebellions like 1857, Britain retained control—ironically, by relying on Indian soldiers and informants to crush dissent.

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5. European Colonialism in Africa: Tribal Chiefs as Middlemen

European powers in Africa followed a simple strategy: co-opt tribal chiefs, using them to collect taxes and enforce control. When resistance arose, they crushed rebellions with military force, deliberately dividing ethnic groups to weaken opposition.

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Conclusion: The Universal Playbook of Empires

History shows that empires rely on three key tools:

1.    Bureaucratic sophistication (Song China, Ottomans)

2.    Collaboration with local elites (Abbasids, British Raj)

3.    Brute repression (Mongols, European colonialism)

Yet, no empire lasts forever. The greatest weakness of imperial rule is its dependence on the oppressed to sustain power. Sooner or later, the conquered rise—and empires fall.

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Sources & Further Reading:

• Fairbank, J.K. China: A New History (Harvard University Press, 1992).
• Hodgson, M. The Venture of Islam (University of Chicago Press, 1974).
• Mann, M. The Sources of Social Power (Cambridge University Press, 1986).

 

When History Is Distorted

The Price of Forgotten Truths

Distorted history not only erases injustices—it rewrites the conscience of nations. This deep dive explores how empires and regimes across the globe have whitewashed the past to shape dangerous myths of greatness.

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The Historian’s Burden

Correcting distorted history is not merely an academic pursuit—it is a moral obligation. When history is twisted, buried under layers of ideology and propaganda, the historian is left to unearth the truth from fragments and silences. Empires, in particular, have long viewed history not as a record of truth, but as a tool of power. One striking example of this selective memory lies in the complex legacy of the American Civil War.

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The Civil War: A Battle of Narratives

Fought between 1861 and 1865, the American Civil War remains a battleground of interpretations. Some scholars see it as a moral crusade to abolish slavery, while others argue it was a fight to preserve the Union. A third perspective, however, views the conflict through the lens of industrial capitalism—suggesting that the industrial North sought to dismantle the agrarian, slave-dependent economy of the South for economic dominance.

Southern plantation owners, whose wealth relied on enslaved labor, often rationalized slavery as a civilizing mission. They claimed to have rescued Africans from “primitive” societies, offering them Christianity and economic stability in return for their freedom—an insidious moral inversion that reframed exploitation as benevolence.

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History as a Weapon: Reinterpretation vs. Manipulation

When a historical event becomes contentious, competing factions often reinterpret sources or discover new ones to defend their stance. While this may expand academic discourse, it also opens the door to distortion. The line between reexamination and falsification becomes dangerously thin.

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Colonial Amnesia: The Whitewashing of Empire

European imperial powers have been especially adept at whitewashing their colonial crimes. They systematically looted native lands, orchestrated mass killings, and exploited indigenous labor. Yet these brutalities find little space in their official histories. Instead, colonialism is often portrayed as a civilizing mission—a generous effort to uplift the “backward” nations of Asia and Africa.

Nowhere is this duplicity more evident than in the transatlantic slave trade. European traders packed African slaves into ships, sold them in American markets, and forced them to labor on sugar and coffee plantations in the Caribbean. These atrocities, however, are conveniently omitted from the historical records.

European nations proudly claim that they abolished slavery in the 1830s out of moral and religious conviction. But the truth is far less noble. It was not ethics, but industrial progress that rendered slavery economically obsolete. Machines began outperforming slave labor, turning slaves from assets into liabilities.

Even the so-called emancipation came at a cost—to the enslaved. Plantation owners claimed compensation for losing “property,” and in some cases, freed slaves were forced to work unpaid for several more years. No reparations were considered for the generations of labor stolen from African descendants. And to this day, slavery’s dehumanizing legacy is treated as a footnote, not a crime.

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Empire’s Economics: Poverty for the Many, Prosperity for the Few

Colonialism wasn’t about development—it was about redistribution, from the poor in the colonies to the poor in Europe. Cecil Rhodes, for example, seized indigenous lands in present-day Zimbabwe and South Africa, resettling them with destitute British families. Germany enacted similar policies in Namibia and Harare, exterminating local tribes to make way for settlers. Europe didn’t “civilize” Africa—it colonized it to alleviate its own poverty, creating wealth for itself and impoverishing the colonized.

These injustices are not taught. They are silenced.

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Nationalism and the Crimes of Omission

Distortion of history is not confined to colonial powers. It has also been wielded as a weapon of nationalism. In 1937, Japan invaded China, unleashing unspeakable horrors in cities like Nanjing. Civilians were massacred, women subjected to mass rape, and entire populations annihilated in Manchuria.

These atrocities extended to Korea and the Philippines, where Korean women were forced into sexual slavery under the guise of “comfort women.” After World War II, Japanese historians, under nationalist pressures, largely ignored these crimes. The Nanjing Massacre, despite overwhelming photographic and eyewitness evidence, was downplayed or outright denied.

Some Japanese soldiers even boasted in diaries about lining up civilians to test how many could be killed with a single bullet. Such chilling records have been scrubbed from national curricula, replaced by sanitized tales of patriotic valor.

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Silencing the Past to Secure the Future

Like the Europeans, Japan chose myth over memory. Their postwar generations grew up not with the burden of history, but with the pride of a rewritten past. Similarly, when European colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence, the departing empires destroyed or relocated crucial records. The new nations inherited silence instead of documentation, making historical recovery almost impossible.

Worse still, in many of these newly independent nations—often ruled by authoritarian regimes—history was again manipulated to legitimize tyranny. Dictators cloaked oppression in nationalism, and compliant historians shied away from exposing state violence.

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The Cost of a Misremembered Past

When doctored history becomes part of national curricula, generations are raised on fiction. Deprived of historical consciousness, the youth are unable to learn from the past and become susceptible to myths of superiority and victimhood. This collective amnesia is not just ignorance—it is danger disguised as patriotism.

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The Historian’s Responsibility

Setting the record straight is a daunting task. Many essential documents remain locked in European archives, far from the reach of scholars in Asia and Africa. But history must not be surrendered to silence. It is the duty of historians, educators, and societies to resist myth-making and resurrect the truth, however painful, so future generations can inherit clarity—not confusion.

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Sources & References:

• Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery
• Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History
• Caroline Elkins, Legacy of Violence: A History of the British Empire
• Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking
• Saidiya Hartman, Lose Your Mother: A Journey Along the Atlantic Slave Route
• UNESCO Transatlantic Slave Trade Database

 

The Birth of Zero

The Clash of Faith and Reason in 9th-Century Baghdad

In the intellectual ferment of Abbasid Baghdad, debates raged over religion, philosophy, and governance. When Imam Abu Hanifa’s rationalist jurisprudence gained official status, Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal challenged the caliph’s authority to impose religious doctrine, advocating instead for collective consensus (ijma). Meanwhile, the Mu'tazilites—influenced by Greek philosophy—promoted reason as a path to divine truth, enjoying the patronage of the caliph himself.

Al-Ma’mun: The Philosopher-Caliph

Al-Ma’mun, son of Harun al-Rashid, was an unlikely ruler. After seizing power following his brother Amin’s assassination—despite never being named heir—he distinguished himself from previous caliphs by his insatiable thirst for knowledge. A Hafiz of the Quran and a scholar of theology, he invested vast resources in translating Greek, Persian, and Indian texts into Arabic.

Under his rule, Baghdad became a crucible of ideas where theologians (mutakallimun), philosophers (falasifa), and mystics (sufis) debated free will, predestination, and the nature of God.

The Dream That Changed History

Legend says al-Ma’mun once dreamed of Aristotle, who counseled him:

"Balance reason (ta‘aqqul) and certainty (tayaqqun). Cherish new ideas, no matter their origin—for knowledge has no religion, no nation. To suppress thought is to defy the divine."

Inspired, al-Ma’mun established the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma), a research center where scholars of all faiths—Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians—worked side by side. Among them was a little-known mathematician from Khwarazm: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi.

Al-Khwarizmi and the Mystery of the Black Dot

Al-Khwarizmi was obsessed with numbers. But in Baghdad, merchants still counted on their fingers or used rudimentary Hindu numerals (1-9). A greater puzzle lay in an ancient Indian manuscript—the Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta—where he discovered a curious symbol: a black dot (śūnya), representing nothingness.

At first, he dismissed it. How could "nothing" be a number?

But as he experimented, he realized this void was the key to infinite calculation. By shifting digits left or right, the dot—now named ṣifr (zero)—could transform 1 into 10, 100, 1000.

One night, atop his rooftop, the truth struck him:

"Zero is both the end and the beginning. Existence itself emerges from nothingness!"

Laughing madly under the stars, the usually reserved scholar danced in revelation.

The Cosmic Zero: From Baghdad to the Renaissance

Al-Khwarizmi’s ṣifr revolutionized mathematics:

• Algebra (al-jabr): His systematic equations birthed modern algebra.
• Algorithms: Latin translations of his work (Algoritmi de numero Indorum) gave the world the term algorithm.
• The Digital Age: Tesla’s wireless energy and binary code (1s and 0s) owe their logic to zero.

The Dark Universe: Zero’s Modern Echo

Centuries later, science uncovered another void:

• Dark Matter (24%) and Dark Energy (71%)—invisible forces binding the cosmos, much like zero binds numbers.
• Quantum Physics: The vacuum isn’t empty; it teems with potential.

Epilogue: The Legacy of Nothingness

From Hindu sages to Persian mathematicians, from medieval mystics (wahdat al-wujud) to Tesla’s visions, zero remains the silent architect of reality. It is the pause between notes in music, the silence before speech—proof that nothing holds everything together.

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Sources & Further Reading:

• Al-Khwarizmi, The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing (830 CE).
• George Gheverghese Joseph, The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics.
• NASA Astrophysics: Dark Matter & Dark Energy research.
• Amir D. Aczel, Finding Zero: A Mathematician’s Odyssey to Uncover the Origins of Numbers.

Pakistan’s Oil Pioneers: Attock

The Ancient Roots of Petroleum

The dazzling technological advancements of the modern world still rely on fossil fuels for 80% of their energy needs—a dependency rooted in millennia of human ingenuity.

For nearly 5,000 years, civilisations have harnessed crude oil. The Babylonians used it to waterproof their boats, while ancient Egyptians incorporated it into mummification rituals. By the 6th century BCE, the Chinese were exporting crude oil through bamboo pipelines to the Philippines, and Marco Polo documented its presence in 13th-century Baku, Azerbaijan.

Yet, the commercial oil industry as we know it began in 1859 with the first drilled well in Pennsylvania, USA. Just 26 years later, German engineer Karl Benz powered the world’s first automobile with refined petroleum. Today, 60% of global oil comes from the Gulf—first discovered in Iran in 1908.

But here’s the twist: Long before the Gulf strikes, oil was already flowing in British India—in the unassuming district of Attock.

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The Accidental Discovery That Changed Everything

In an era before seismic surveys, oil was often stumbled upon by chance—usually when villagers dug wells for water and struck "black water" instead. Such was the case in Khaur, Attock, where locals used the crude oil for lamps and fuel.

According to Hadi Sahib, a historian of Attock’s public heritage, the first technical oil well in British India was drilled in Assam in 1887. But two decades earlier, in 1866, a British engineer named Mr. Fennor had already struck oil in Pindigheb, Attock. At just 15 feet deep, three of his seven test wells gushed crude. By 1869, production soared to 50 gallons per day, sparking a rush.

Another Englishman, Mr. Layman, soon began prospecting across Rawalpindi and Attock. But the real game-changer was yet to arrive—a bankrupt Scottish trader with an improbable dream.

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From Trout Farms to Oil Barons: The Frank Mitchell Story

Frank Mitchell, a Scottish merchant, lost his fortune in South African gold mines and arrived in India penniless. His brother, a carpet trader in Kashmir, suggested a fresh start.

Mitchell noticed Kashmir’s rivers were perfect for trout farming. He imported trout eggs from Britain, and his venture flourished so much that the Maharaja appointed him Honorary Director of Fisheries.

But fate had bigger plans. While experimenting with olive cultivation in Potohar, locals told him about Attock’s oil seeps. Intrigued, Mitchell hired a geologist to confirm the reserves.

On December 1, 1913, with £25,000 in capital, he founded the Attock Oil Company in Manchester—choosing the name despite Attock being renamed Campbellpur in 1908.

By 1915, just two years after its founding, the company struck massive reserves in Khaur, producing 5,000 barrels per day from a single well. Soon, over 400 wells dotted the region, yielding 480,000 barrels annually by 1929.

Mitchell didn’t stop there. In 1920, he launched Mitchell’s Fruit Farms in Punjab, securing 720 acres in Renala Khurd. He passed away in 1933 in Baramulla, Kashmir, leaving behind an industrial legacy.

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Khaur: The Oil Boom That Redefined a Region

The Attock Oil Company’s 1963 Golden Jubilee newsletter reveals a riveting backstory:

• Between 1887–1890, the Townsend brothers drilled wells in Khattan (Balochistan), Jabbah, and Chharat (Attock), proving oil existed in the region.
• When Assam struck oil, Punjab’s Governor Sir Louis W. Dane pushed for local exploration. The task fell to Frank Mitchell, who collaborated with Colonel Massey and Steel Brothers & Co. (a Burma oil firm).
• Geologist E.S. Pinfold, later the company’s chairman (1930–1943), spearheaded drilling efforts in Attock.

At the time, there were no roads—company officials traveled on horses and camels. The first Khaur well, drilled on January 22, 1915, hit oil at 223 feet, producing 5,000 barrels daily. Though short-lived, it unlocked the region’s potential.

By the 1930s, giants like Burma Oil Company and Whitehall Petroleum Corporation joined the rush. In 1937, a new well struck oil in Dhulian on the day of King George VI’s coronation—deemed an auspicious sign.

Post-World War II, the Punjab government funded further exploration, leading to discoveries in Mial and Achhri—though these failed. In 1944, a 6,900-foot-deep well at Joyamir (near Balkassar) yielded thick, high-ignition crude, revolutionizing local refining.

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Attock Refinery: South Asia’s First Oil Hub

Adil Khattak, CEO of Attock Refinery (with 47 years in the group), shared insights with Independent Urdu:

• Founded in 1922, the Morgah Refinery (Rawalpindi) was the region’s first, predating Gulf refineries.
• Initial capacity: 2,500 barrels/day, mostly producing kerosene (used in lamps, fans, and even early trucks).
• Expanded in 1938, 1980, and 2000, now serving Pakistan’s entire northern oil demand.

The refinery’s early days were led by D. MacCreath, who became its chairman until his death in 1961. A visionary, he was also the first non-military president of Rawalpindi Club.

In 1979, an Arab business family acquired Attock Oil’s majority shares. Today, its subsidiaries include:
✔ Attock Refinery
✔ Pakistan Oilfields
✔ National Refinery
✔ Attock Cement
✔ Attock Generation Ltd

Despite its UK headquarters, management is entirely Pakistani—with employees spanning four generations of the same families.

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The Heritage Museum: Preserving Pakistan’s Oil Legacy

• Khaur’s first well (1915), though dry, is now a national heritage site.
• The original 1922 refinery unit is displayed in the museum.
• Artifacts include:
• A 10 kW power generator (hauled from a British village, nearly lost when its truck overturned).
• A candle-making machine (converting oil to wax).
• A railway wagon used for oil transport.

This museum chronicles a century of Pakistan’s oil exploration—a tribute to the pioneers who fueled a nation.

Long before the Gulf’s oil riches, Attock was the unsung hero of South Asia’s petroleum history—a testament to resilience, ingenuity, and the power of accidental discovery.

Sources, categorised by topic:

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1. Ancient Use of Petroleum

• Babylonians & Egyptians:
• Forbes, R.J. (1958). Studies in Early Petroleum History. Brill.
• Craddock, P.T. (2008). "Oil in the Ancient World." Scientific American.
• Chinese Oil Pipelines (6th Century BCE):
• Needham, J. (1986). Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press.
• Marco Polo’s Account of Baku Oil:
• Polo, M. (1298). The Travels of Marco Polo. (Yule-Cordier translation, 1903).

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2. Early Oil Exploration in British India

• First Commercial Well (Pennsylvania, 1859):
• Yergin, D. (1991). The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power. Simon & Schuster.
• Attock’s 1866 Discovery:
• Attock Oil Company Archives (1963). Golden Jubilee Newsletter.
• Pakistani historian Hadi Sahib’s oral accounts (cited in Independent Urdu).
• Assam’s 1887 Well:
• Basu, S. (2005). Oil in India: A Documentary History. Marg Publications.

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3. Frank Mitchell & Attock Oil Company

• Mitchell’s Trout Farming in Kashmir:
• The Statesman (India), 1910s archival reports.
• Attock Oil Company Founding (1913):
• The Manchester Guardian, December 1913 (archival business registries).
• Khaur Oil Strike (1915):
• The Petroleum Times, 1915–1920 (British trade journals).

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4. Geological & Industrial Developments

• Geologist E.S. Pinfold’s Role:
• Attock Oil Company Annual Reports (1930–1943).
• Joyamir Well (1944) & Thick Crude Challenges:
• Journal of the Institution of Petroleum Technologists, 1945.
• Morgah Refinery (1922):
• The Times of India, March 1922 (inauguration coverage).

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5. Post-1947 Legacy

• 1979 Arab Acquisition of Attock Oil:
• Financial Times (UK), 1979 corporate filings.
• Heritage Museum & Artifacts:
• Interviews with Adil Khattak (CEO, Attock Refinery), Independent Urdu.

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Suggested Additions for Robust Sourcing

1.    British Colonial Records:

o   India Office Records (British Library) on Punjab’s oil exploration.

2.    Academic Papers:

o   Khan, M.H. (2010). Hydrocarbon History of Pakistan. Pakistan Geological Survey.

3.    Corporate Histories:

o   Attock Petroleum Limited: 100 Years of Energy (2013 commemorative publication).

The saga of the Crusades

Throughout history, nations have woven ideologies and laws into the fabric of their societies to maintain order. Yet, certain events and calamities leave such an indelible mark that they defy oblivion, their echoes reverberating through generations. Each era reinterprets their meaning, breathing new life into old tales. Among these, the memories of wars carve the deepest grooves—triumphs are immortalized in monuments, while defeats are accepted as divine retribution, borne with a heavy heart.

The saga of the Crusades, a clash between Muslims and Christians, has been retold across centuries, reshaped by the tides of time. It began in 1097 and drew its final curtain in the thirteenth century, a tumultuous epoch marked by bitter defeats and fleeting victories for both sides. When Jerusalem fell to the Crusaders, it was crowned the heart of Christendom—a triumph for Christians, yet a bitter pill for Jews, whose memories of those days remain steeped in sorrow. To Muslims, the Crusaders were invaders who shattered the peace of the Middle East; to Christians, these were holy wars, waged to wrest sacred sites from Muslim hands.

Amid the clash of swords, towering figures emerged. Salahuddin Ayyubi—Saladin—liberated Jerusalem from the Crusaders, standing as a bulwark for the Middle East. His rival, Richard the Lionheart, England’s indomitable ruler, met him in battle but returned home empty-handed. Meanwhile, as the Crusaders held sway over parts of the region, trade flourished between Europe and the Middle East—a curious twist, given Europe’s backwardness at the time, while Asian realms basked in prosperity. The Crusades didn’t truly end in 1300; rather, they morphed into a new chapter. The Mamluk Sultan Baybars, reigning from 1260 to 1277, dealt the decisive blow, driving the Crusaders from the Middle East once and for all.

Though the battles faded, the spirit of the Crusades lingered like a ghost unwilling to depart. The Church wielded it as a political cudgel, declaring Crusades against sects that dared to tamper with Christian doctrine. In France, the Cathars faced a brutal massacre, their annihilation cloaked as a holy cause. Fast forward to the aftermath of World War I: as the Ottoman Empire crumbled and Arab lands broke free from its yoke, Britain and France swooped in, claiming dominion over Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Jordan. In 1917, British General Edmund Allenby strode into Damascus, paused at Saladin’s tomb, and—with a kick to the grave—proclaimed, “Saladin, we’re back.” A stark reminder that, even with the passage of centuries, the Crusades’ shadow looms large.

To keep these memories alive, literature, art, theater, and film have all played their part. English pens have spun novels, stories, and histories—none more distinguished than Steven Runciman’s A History of the Crusades, a scholarly gem. In Urdu, Abdul Halim Sharar’s novels weave Crusader tales with flair, while Arabic literature offers novels, short stories, and research dissecting the Muslim perspective. The past, it seems, refuses to rest quietly.

Even today, the Crusader ethos endures. Decades ago, President Ronald Reagan dubbed the Afghan Mujahideen’s fight against Soviet forces a “Crusade.” Later, President George W. Bush branded the war on Al-Qaeda in similar terms. Thus, the Crusades live on—not merely as history, but as an idea that still stirs the modern soul, a thread unbroken through time.

 

Sources:

1. General History of the Crusades

• Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades (3 vols., 1951–1954).
• A foundational scholarly work on the Crusades from a Western perspective.
• Asbridge, Thomas. The Crusades: The Authoritative History (2010).
• A well-researched modern overview.
• Maalouf, Amin. The Crusades Through Arab Eyes (1984).
• Provides the Muslim perspective on the Crusades.

2. Saladin and Richard the Lionheart

• Phillips, Jonathan. The Life and Legend of the Sultan Saladin (2019).
• A detailed biography of Saladin.
• Gillingham, John. Richard I (1999).
• A scholarly account of Richard the Lionheart’s role in the Crusades.

3. The Fall of Jerusalem & Later Crusades

• Tyerman, Christopher. God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (2006).
• Covers the broader impact of the Crusades, including the Mamluk resistance.
• Holt, P.M. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517 (1986).
• Discusses Baybars and the Mamluk expulsion of Crusaders.

4. The Church’s Use of Crusading Ideology (e.g., Against Cathars)

• Madden, Thomas F. The Concise History of the Crusades (2013).
• Explains how the Church extended the Crusade concept to internal enemies.
• Barber, Malcolm. The Cathars: Dualist Heretics in Languedoc in the High Middle Ages (2000).
• Details the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars.

5. Allenby’s Entry into Jerusalem (1917) & Modern Crusader Rhetoric

• Fromkin, David. A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East (1989).
• Discusses British and French colonial policies post-WWI.
• Karsh, Efraim. Islamic Imperialism: A History (2006).
• Analyzes Western interventions in the Middle East.
• Bush’s "Crusade" Remarks (2001):
• CNN Transcript (Sept. 16, 2001): "This crusade, this war on terrorism..."
• Later retracted due to backlash.

6. Crusades in Literature & Popular Culture

• Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (1999).
• Examines Muslim historiographical responses.
• Sharar, Abdul Halim. Firdaus-e-Bareen (Urdu Novel on Crusades).
• A fictional but historically grounded account.